T
he French Revolution (1789-1799) stands as a watershed moment in world history, a seismic event that irrevocably altered the political, social, and intellectual landscape of Europe and beyond. It marked the end of absolute monarchy and paved the way for modern democratic ideals, though not without significant bloodshed and turmoil.
For Kerala PSC aspirants, understanding this revolution is crucial, as it provides insights into the dynamics of societal change, the evolution of modern political thought, and the complexities of revolutionary processes
The French Revolution (1789-1799)
Table of Contents
Basic Facts
- Timeline − 1789 to 1799.
- Epithet − Mother of all revolutions.
- Ruler of France during the French Revolution − Louis XVI.
- Last King of France − Louis XVI (House of Bourbon).
- The official residence of the French Kings during the French Revolution − Palace of Versailles.
- Motto of the French Revolution − Liberty, Equality, Fraternity (Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité).
- Name the thinkers who inspired the French Revolution − Rousseau, Voltaire, Montesquieu.
- Real name of Voltaire − Francois Marie Arout.
- Prophet of the French Revolution − Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
- Bible of the French Revolution − Social Contract.
- Father of the French Revolution − Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
- Child of the French Revolution − Napoleon Bonaparte.
- The French scientist who was executed by the guillotine during the French Revolution − Antoine Lavoisier.
- The Indian ruler planted a tree in Srirangapatnam to commemorate the French Revolution − Tipu Sultan.
- He also became part of the French club, Jacobins.
- The first country to provide universal male suffrage − France.
- The tower, which was constructed in France to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution − The Eiffel Tower.
- Built by − Gustave Eiffel.
- Nickname − Iron Lady (La dame de fer).
- part of the 1889 Exposition Universelle.
- The political and military leader of France with the nickname 'Man of Destiny' − Napoleon Bonaparte.
- Famous Quotes −
- 'I am the nation' − Louis XIV.
- 'After me, the flood will come' − Louis XV.
- 'Let them eat cake' − Marie-Antoinette.
- 'Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains' − Rousseau.
- 'To renounce liberty is to renounce being a man, to surrender the rights [and duties] of humanity' − Rousseau.
- 'When France sneezes, the rest of Europe catches a cold' − Metternich.
- 'O Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name!' − Madame Roland.
- 'A mad dog! That I may be! but elect me and despotism and privilege will die of my bite' − Comte De Mirabeau.
- 'Terror is only justice, more inexorable and therefore virtue’s true child' − Maximilien Robespierre.
- 'I am the Revolution' − Napoleon Bonaparte.
- 'The future destiny of a child is always the work of the mother' − Napoleon Bonaparte.
- 'Impossible is a word to be found only in the dictionary of fools' − Napoleon Bonaparte.
- 'Courage isn't having the strength to go on - it is going on when you don't have strength' − Napoleon Bonaparte.
- Famous Books −
- Emile − Rousseau.
- Candide − Voltaire.
- Confessions − Rousseau.
- Social Contract − Rousseau.
- The Spirit of Laws − Montesquieu
- A Tale of Two Cities − Charles Dickens.
- The Friend of the People ("L'Ami du peuple", Newspaper) − Jean-Paul Marat.
Causes of the French Revolution
The revolution was not a sudden eruption but the culmination of long-standing social, economic, and political tensions.
Socio-Economic Inequalities
Division of the French Society
The French society of the 18th century was deeply entrenched in inequality. France was under an absolute monarchy where the French monarch, Louis XVI, had absolute power.
The rigid social hierarchy of the Ancien Régime was divided into three estates.
- First Estate – Clergy
- Second Estate – Nobility
- Third Estate – Bourgeoisie, peasants, urban workers
The privileged First and Second Estates, with vast wealth and power, enjoyed tax exemptions and feudal privileges, while the Third Estate, comprising the vast majority of the population, bore the brunt of taxation.
Taxes in Pre-Revolutionary France
Below is the list of the taxes the commoners had to pay, while the remaining 2% of the population (ie, the clergy and nobility) were almost exempted from the taxation.
| Tax Name | Purpose | Paid By |
|---|---|---|
| Taille | Direct land tax | Peasants (Third Estate) (Major source of Royal revenue) |
| Gabelle | Salt tax | Peasants & Commoners (Third Estate) |
| Tithe (Dîme) | Church tax | Peasants (Third Estate) (10% levy on agricultural produce) |
| Aides | Indirect taxes on goods | Commoners (Third Estate) |
| Feudal Dues (Seigneurial Rights) | Obligations to local lords | Peasants (Third Estate) (corvée and payments for using the lord's facilities) |
| Capitation | Poll tax | Third estate (Tax per head) |
| Vingtième | Income tax | Theoretically, all 3 estates, but the first two estates found many ways to avoid paying it |
Economic hardship, exacerbated by poor harvests, rising food prices, and state debt, fuelled popular discontent.
Financial Crisis & Political Ineptitude
France faced severe difficulties due to costly wars, including its involvement in the Seven Years' War (1756-763) and the American Revolution (1775-1783).
The monarchy's lavish spending under the leadership of King Louis XVI and his queen, Marie Antoinette, coupled with the royal court's extravagance, further drained the treasury.
Poor harvests of 1787 and 1788 significantly reduced the grain supply, which was the staple food for the majority of the French population.
Consequently, the price of bread soared, making it unaffordable for many, especially the poor.
This widespread hunger and desperation were major contributing factors to the social unrest and the growing anger towards the monarchy, and bread riots became a common occurrence.
In 1789, the king convened the Estates-General to address the dire financial crisis, but the proceedings turned into a power struggle between the estates, causing the monarchy to struggle to reform the archaic fiscal system.
Enlightenment Ideas
The Enlightenment emphasized reason, individual rights, and popular sovereignty while challenging absolute monarchy and aristocratic privilege.
Philosophers like Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Voltaire provided intellectual support for revolutionary thought.
The concept of the 'general will' and the 'social contract' questioned the divine right of kings.
At the same time, Jean-Paul Marat, the editor of the 'The Friend of the People' (translates to "L'Ami du peuple" in French) newspaper, was a powerful voice for the radical faction which advocated the rights of the common man during the revolution.
This revolutionary newspaper played a significant role in the Women's March on Versailles (October 1789), the abolition of the Monarchy (1792), and the September Massacres (1792).
Course of the French Revolution
The revolution unfolded in distinct phases, each marked by significant events and shifts in power.
The Liberal Phase (1789-1792)
The liberal phase saw the formation of the National Assembly, the Tennis Court Oath, the fall of the Bastille, constitutional monarchy being established, and the King Louis XVI's powers were limited.
Formation of the National Assembly (1789–1791)
In May 1789, King Louis XVI called the Estates-General to address the financial crisis, which had not been called in over 175 years.
This act was a direct challenge to the authority of King Louis XVI and asserted that they, the elected representatives of the majority of the French populace, constituted the legitimate governing body of France.
Their primary goal was to draft a constitution, transitioning France to a constitutional monarchy and limiting the king's power.
- Tennis Court Oath,
- Abolition of feudalism,
- Declaration of the Rights of Man,
- 1791 Constitution.
Tennis Court Oath (1789)
On June 20, 1789, the members of the Third Estate, who had declared themselves the National Assembly, arrived at their usual meeting hall only to find it locked.
When they were locked out of their meeting hall, the members of the Third Estate decided to gather on a nearby indoor tennis court (Jeu de Paume).
Inside the tennis court, the deputies of the National Assembly took a solemn oath, pledging not to disband until they drafted a constitution for France. This revolutionary pledge became known as the Tennis Court Oath.
This event marked the end of the old absolute monarchy system and laid the groundwork for the establishment of a constitutional government, marking the beginning of the French Revolution.
Fall of the Bastille (July 17,1789)
A panic wave swept through the whole of France, fuelled by the rumors of an "aristocratic conspiracy" by the king and the privileged to overthrow the Third Estate and undermine the budding French Revolution.
This period of panic is referred to as the Great Fear. Peasants and townspeople attacked manorial houses, eventually leading to the Fall of the Bastille and the passage of the August Decrees.
As a result, on July 14, 1789, revolutionaries stormed the Bastille, a prison and symbol of royal tyranny, in a bold act of defiance.
This event, now celebrated as Bastille Day, ignited widespread uprisings in France, leading to the collapse of the ancien régime and the dismantling of feudal privileges, ultimately resulting in the dismantling of the monarchy.
The fall of the Bastille is widely considered the beginning of the French Revolution.
August Decrees (August 4, 1789)
By the August Decrees of 1789, the National Constituent Assembly abolished feudal privileges, dues, and tithes, ending centuries of aristocratic and clerical privilege, and introduced the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
This was a major victory for the peasantry and a step toward equality.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789)
On August 26, 1789, the National Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which proclaimed the equality of all men before the law and emphasized the fundamental rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance against oppression.
This document laid the intellectual and legal foundations for the modern understanding of human rights and democracy, influencing not only the French Revolution but future revolutions and declarations worldwide.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man became a cornerstone of modern human rights, influencing democratic movements across the world.
Legislative Assembly (1791–1792)
The National Assembly was replaced by the Legislative Assembly after the 1791 Constitution, retaining a constitutional monarchy but facing political polarization.
- Constitutional Monarchy: although the King kept authority, while subject to the law.
- Separation of Powers: while the Legislative Assembly enacted laws, a separate court was formed for judicial purposes.
- Restricted suffrage: only affluent taxpaying males were allowed to vote.
- Church reforms: By the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790, all church lands and properties were nationalized, and clerics were required to pledge homage to the state.
However, the king's attempts to flee the country in 1791 to Austria eroded any remaining trust in the monarchy, and radical protests undermined its legitimacy.
The Radical Phase (1792-1794)
French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802)
The Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802) were a series of military conflicts between Revolutionary France and European monarchies, who feared the spread of revolutionary ideas to their own countries.
In April 1792, the Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria, fearing a conspiracy to restore Louis XVI. Prussia soon joined Austria in the war against revolutionary France.
However, it was after the monarchy was abolished, and the National Convention was formed, that the war intensified National Convention managed the military defense, oversaw the Levée en massethe (mass mobilization of all unmarried, able-bodied men between 18 and 25), and the execution of the king.
P.S. Will provide more details in a different post.
September Massacres
The September Massacres were a series of brutal killings of prisoners in Paris from September 2nd to 6th, 1792, driven by fear of invasion and rumors of internal enemies.
Mobs stormed prisons and summarily executed an estimated 1,100-1,600 inmates, marking a violent escalation in the French Revolution.
National Convention (1792–1795)
The National Convention was formed after the monarchy was abolished on September 21, 1792, the royal family was imprisoned, and France was declared a republic.
It established the Committee of Public Safety (Comité de Salut Public) on April 6, 1793.
Its initial purpose was to safeguard the newly formed Republic against both foreign and domestic enemies amidst war and internal unrest.
Over time, it became the de facto executive government of France, wielding immense power during the Reign of Terror.
Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Danton, Louis de Saint-Just, and Lazare Carnot were some of the influential members of the committee.
Execution of King Louis XVI (Jan 1793)
After being tried for treason, the National Convention guillotined French monarch King Louis XVI and, subsequently, his queen consort Marie-Antoinette.
His death symbolized the Revolution’s irreversible break from monarchy and arguably paved the way for the Reign of Terror.
The Thermidorian Reaction (1794-1799)
The Reign of Terror (1793-1794)
From 1793 to 1794, the revolution took a dark turn during the period known as the Reign of Terror, led by the Jacobins and the radical revolutionary Maximilien Robespierre.
The government, dominated by the Committee of Public Safety, sought to suppress counter-revolutionary movements and perceived enemies of the revolution.
Thousands of people, including Queen Marie Antoinette and former allies of the revolution, were executed by guillotine during this period.
The Reign of Terror ended with the fall of Robespierre in July 1794, signaling the decline of the radical phase of the revolution.
After Robespierre’s fall, the more moderate Thermidorian Reaction took place.
The Directory & Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
The Directory, a five-member committee, took control of France but struggled with corruption, inefficiency, and ongoing wars. The revolutionary ideals began to fade, and France sought stability.
Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
By the late 1790s, the revolution had entered a phase of political turmoil.
The Directory, which governed France after the fall of Robespierre, was weak, corrupt, and ineffective, leaving the country vulnerable to both internal and external threats.
Amidst the chaos of the revolution and the instability of post-revolutionary France and the chaotic politics of the Directory, created an environment in which a military leader like Napoleon Bonaparte could rise to power.
Napoleon Bonaparte was a skilled military commander, rose to prominence for his successes in Italy and Egypt. His military genius, coupled with his ability to inspire loyalty in his troops, made him a national hero.
In 1799, he staged a coup d'état and overthrew the Directory, establishing himself as First Consul of the newly formed Consulate. In 1804, he declared himself Emperor of France.
Napoleon’s rise marked the end of the revolution, though many of its principles, such as legal equality and the secular state, were preserved under his rule.
Napoleon would go on to dominate Europe for over a decade, spreading the ideals of the revolution across the continent.
Fall of Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon's reign was marked by military overreach, internal dissent, and changing political dynamics in Europe.
One of his most significant mistakes was his decision to invade Russia in 1812. Napoleon's military campaign against Russia, known as the Russian Campaign, ended in disaster.
The harsh winter, coupled with logistical failures and a scorched-earth policy employed by the Russians, led to the destruction of much of his army, weakening Napoleon's position in Europe and sparked the beginning of his downfall.
In the years that followed, a coalition of European powers — Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria —formed to oppose Napoleon.
The Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, leading to his first exile to the island of Elba in 1814.
However, Napoleon’s determination and popularity among the French people led to his return to France in 1815, an event known as the Hundred Days.
His return sparked renewed military campaigns, but his forces were decisively defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by the Seventh Coalition. This final defeat marked the end of Napoleon's reign.
Following his loss at Waterloo, Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, where he spent the remainder of his life.
He died there in 1821, marking the definitive end of his imperial ambitions.
Role of Women in the French Revolution
Women across different social classes actively participated in the French Revolution in various ways.
Women also formed political clubs and societies, voicing their opinions and demanding rights, even though they were largely excluded from formal political processes.
Olympe de Gouges was a pivotal figure who advocated fiercely for women's rights, publishing the 'Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen' in 1791, demanding equality and challenging male authority; she ultimately paid for her radical views with her life during the Reign of Terror.
Another key female figure was Girondin supporter Charlotte Corday, who assassinated the radical leader Jean-Paul Marat (an ally of the Jacobins and supporter of the Reign of Terror), believing his influence was fueling violence.
She was later executed and became a symbol for women’s political agency.
Significance and Impact of the French Revolution
- End of Feudalism and the Ancien Régime: The revolution dismantled the old social order, paving the way for a more egalitarian society.
- Rise of Nationalism: The revolution fostered a sense of national identity and popular sovereignty.
- Spread of Revolutionary Ideas: The principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity resonated across Europe and inspired subsequent revolutions.
- Napoleonic Wars: The revolution's aftermath led to the Napoleonic Wars, which reshaped the map of Europe.
- Napoleonic Code: Napoleon’s legal reforms became the foundation for modern legal systems in many countries.
- The Nature of Warfare: The levée en masse (mass conscription) during the revolution transformed warfare and the scale of armies.
- The creation of a secular state: The revolution drastically reduced the power of the catholic church within France.
- Inspiration for Future Revolutions: The French Revolution served as both an inspiration and a cautionary tale for subsequent revolutionary movements like the American Revolution and the Russian Revolution (1917) around the world.
French Revolution and India
The French Revolution, with its ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity, had an indirect but significant influence on India.
While India was under British colonial rule, the revolutionary ideas resonated with some Indian social reformers like Rajaram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekananda, and early nationalists like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who admired the concepts of self-governance and the challenging of the established authority.
- The Indian Constituent Assembly adopted the concept of liberty, equality, and fraternity into the Preamble of the Indian Constitution from the French Revolution. French revolutionary beliefs also inspired both the concept of a republic and secularism in the Indian constitution.
- Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore in the late eighteenth century, is known for erecting the Tree of Liberty in his capital, Seringapatam, and referring to himself as 'Citizen Tipoo'.
Also Read:
SideNotes
- The last Europeans to reach India as traders − French.
- The first French factory in India − Surat (Francois Caron, 1668).
- Napoleon of India − Samudragupta (by historian AV Smith).
- Napoleon of South India − Rajendra Chola.
- Kerala Napoleon – Poykayil Yohannan.
- The book 'Man of Destiny' was written by – George Bernard Shaw.
- Pride's Purge − It was a forceful exclusion of members of the Long Parliament from the House of Commons during the Second English Civil War. It led to the establishment of the "Rump Parliament" and the execution of King Charles I.
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